(Biological) Sex and the City: considering the impact of urbanization on sex-based inequality in Roman Italy

Unequal access to resources between sexes is documented in both urban and rural contexts, as well as in historical sources. This study aims to investigate whether urbanization may exacerbate sex-based differences. Two assemblages of 50 individuals each are examined from the rural settlement of Corinaldo (1st–4th centuries AD) and the urban site of Milan (1st–5th centuries AD). Macroscopic and radiographic analyses of the skeletal remains are conducted and integrated with statistical approaches to investigate survivorship (Kaplan–Meier analysis) and differences in the distribution of stress markers (Fisher’s exact test). In Milan, females (mean age at death: 32 years) exhibit significantly lower survival than males (41 years) (log-rank p = 0.016). Conversely, Corinaldo shows comparable ages at death between sexes (~39 years). Enamel hypoplasia frequencies are similar at both sites, although peaks in formation differ (4–5 years in Milan; 3–4 years in Corinaldo). Cribra orbitalia is more frequent among males in Milan, whereas Corinaldo shows a more balanced distribution. Porotic hyperostosis is more common in Corinaldo and affects only males in both samples, while femoral and humeral cribra display similar frequencies across populations. Harris lines are more frequent in Milanese females and Corinaldo males. Milanese females show a 12 cm gap in stature compared to males, whereas in Corinaldo the difference is approximately 8 cm. The lower survivorship observed in females may be related to sex-based inequalities in access to resources, differential exposure to environmental risks, or the impact of settlement type on lifestyle. These patterns are consistent with evidence from literary and epigraphic sources. Urban pressures may have overridden the typical female biological buffering capacity, resulting in marked disparities in survival and health. In contrast, females from Corinaldo appear to demonstrate greater resilience, with more effective catch-up growth and increased longevity. This study highlights how urbanization can override intrinsic biological advantages through specific environmental and social pressures. Small sample sizes and potential migratory flows, especially in Milan, may influence stature and stress marker data.