The worldwide life expectancy has experienced a dramatic rise in the last century, resulting in an increase in the proportion of people aged over 65 years old. Unfortunately, this increase in longevity has not been accompanied by an increase in the years of "disease-free life". Rather, the incidence and impact (social and economic) of age-associated diseases have increased in parallel. Thus, the study of the mechanisms associated with aging is an area of vital importance to identify which characteristics of aging are related to the appearance of age-associated pathologies, such as cardiovascular diseases, cancer and neurodegenerative disorders. In addition, the aging of the population is represented by the emergence of specific concomitant conditions, including loss of cognitive and physical function, polypharmacy or multimorbidity. In this sense, it is key to consider the extensive communication that exists between different tissues and organ systems. That is, changes that occur at the systemic level can have an effect at the central nervous system level, and vice versa. Several evidence have pointed out that aging manifests at the clinical level when there is an imbalance between cell damage and compensatory mechanisms. However, it is evident that this process, as well as the susceptibility to multimorbidity, affects individuals in a heterogeneous manner. This individual variability can be explained by the interaction among different biological factors, such as genetics or biological sex, and external factors, such as the environment, diet or socioeconomic determinants. In particular, the role of biological sex and gender in different pathologies, prognosis and response to treatments has been increasingly recognized. However, the inclusion of sex (and gender) as a variable still represents a need in clinical and preclinical research. Performing aging studies in human patients presents several obstacles. In this sense, the use of experimental models is very useful in pre-clinical phases and can help to understand the nature of the mechanisms underlying aging and how their interactions may predispose to pathology. In recent years, the Octodon degus (O. degus) has been proposed as a relevant tool in biomedical research. Unlike traditional rodents, the O. degus is diurnal and shows several biological characteristics similar to humans, including the development of some pathological traits associated with human aging. Among them, it has been evidenced the spontaneous appearance of pathological features such as beta-amyloid plaques and phosphorylated tau protein deposits, as well as postsynaptic dysfunction. Likewise, there is a high degree of homology with the most frequent neurodegenerative disease-related proteins (beta-amyloid, tau, alpha-synuclein and APOE). In addition, some age-related changes have been described in this model, such as astrocytic activation and oxidative stress markers, neuronal apoptosis, white matter changes similar to those of human aging, cognitive and behavioral dysfunction, type II diabetes, cataracts, retinal alterations and circadian rhythm changes. For all these reasons, this model represents a promising alternative to reproduce the multimorbidity scenario found in human aging. However, several aspects of the O. degus biology have not been characterized yet. With this in mind, the main objective of this thesis was the characterization of the O. degus as a natural model of aging by exploring systemic and brain changes along aging, as well as their interaction, including sex as an experimental variable. For this purpose, studies were performed on a total of 110 animals aged from 6 months old to 7 years old, which were divided according to age, sex or treatments. The data presented in this thesis are the result of the combination of in vivo analyses (plasma analytes, cardiac function and behavior), with the post mortem evaluation in different brain areas of neuroinflammatory processes, changes in lipid composition, lipid peroxidation and neuronal death. The first block of results of this work provides the sex-specific values of the biochemical profile in the blood of O. degus during aging. The analytes determined allowed us to examine the general metabolism, hepatic, renal and pancreatic functions, oxidation and inflammatory status. We found that most parameters were significantly altered in aged animals, with differences between males and females. The analytes analyzed indicated that these animals develop hepatic, renal and pancreatic dysfunction associated with aging. Also, plasma oxidation and inflammation levels were significantly increased in older animals compared to younger animals. Differences between males and females were also found along aging, specially in the analytes related to general and liver, muscle, and kidney metabolism, to redox-status or to inflammatory status. The biggest differences were related to oxidative status, suggesting higher oxidation in males versus females. Due to the high inter-individual variability of the data, especially accentuated in the older groups, the statistical analyses did not show significant differences in some parameters, such as glucose levels or inflammation indicators. This situation is of great interest since, taking into account that the animals in this study are not genetically identical and that they have been maintained in the same environmental conditions, only some of them are susceptible to develop sub-clinical pathological states that may predispose to the development of chronic diseases associated with aging. The second block of results shows the study of in vivo cardiac function evaluated by electrocardiography. In this section, the normal ranges for the heart rate, duration and voltage of the electrocardiogram waves and intervals, as well as electrical axis deviation, were determined. The statistical analysis revealed that the parameters that showed the greatest differences according to sex were the higher incidence of arrhythmias and greater deviation of the electrical axis of the heart in males than in females. Likewise, some electrocardiogram modifications were detected when comparing the different ages. Heart rate decreased significantly at older ages, with males being more affected than females. QRS complex duration was significantly increased in females as they aged, but not in males. Finally, the QT interval duration of younger females was significantly shorter than that of males of the same age, while in the senile stage this situation was reversed. Therefore, the data obtained showed that O. degus develop spontaneous cardiac alterations associated with aging that differ between males and females, adding value to this model for use as a natural model for investigations of the cardiovascular system. Thirdly, we analyzed the cognitive impairment associated with aging with a sex perspective, and its possible relationship with the neuroinflammatory status (microglia and astrocytes) in the dorsal hippocampus. Considering the effect of age, aged O. degus (>4 years) showed a very significant cognitive impairment when they were compared to young animals. Interestingly, when possible differences associated with the sex were investigated, we found that they were significant in the aged animals: during the training sessions, the aged females showed a better performance than the aged males, which was reversed on the day of the final test. Post mortem studies revealed that, in all dorsal hippocampal subareas analyzed, neuroinflammation was significantly increased in older animals, being the basal immunolabeling levels for microglia and astrocytes higher in males than in females. Correlation analyses indicated that increased neuroinflammation is related to worse cognitive performance, especially in the dentate gyrus and Cornu Ammonis subfield 1. The information derived from these studies characterizes for the first time age-associated cognitive decline in O. degus and its relationship to neuroinflammation in the dorsal hippocampus, with a component of inter-individual variability. The fourth block of results corresponds to the analysis of the lipid composition in the brain of O. degus during aging, in both males and females. For this purpose, four brain areas were analyzed: prefrontal cortex (PFC), striatum, cortex and cerebellum. Analysis of total lipid extracts showed that changes in lipid species in the PFC, striatum and cortex were more influenced by the age of the animals than by their sex, while in cerebellum both variables influenced more significantly the lipid composition. The changes observed during aging were region-specific, those in glycosphingolipids being common to all regions. The greatest sex-associated differences were found in gangliosides at all ages, while sphingomyelin and sulfatides were significantly different when comparing males and females of senile age. Finally, given its key role in spatial memory circuits, lipid peroxidation (POL) was analyzed in the PFC. We found that it was significantly increased along aging, males showing significant higher levels of POL than females. In addition, higher POL significantly correlated with worse cognitive performance. On the one hand, these results represent a first piece of information in the brain lipid characterization of this model. On the other hand, these data support the inclusion of sex as a variable to understand differential age-associated neurodegeneration, as well as the higher prevalence of certain diseases such as Alzheimer's disease. Finally, we validated the use of O. degus as a model of experimental Parkinsonism based on 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydro-pyridine (MPTP) intoxication. MPTP intoxicated animals showed dysregulation of blood glucose levels, together with motor and cognitive alterations. Post-mortem analysis revealed a very significant loss of dopaminergic neurons in the Substantia Nigra pars compacta (SNpc) and in the ventral tegmental area (VTA), although dopaminergic terminals were not altered. Similarly, a highly significant reduction of noradrenergic neurons in the locus coeruleus (LC) was detected in MPTP-intoxicated animals. These findings were accompanied by a significant increase in microglial and astroglial response in the ventral midbrain (SNpc and VTA), striatum, dorsal hippocampus and LC of parkinsonized animals. These results demonstrate, for the first time, that O. degus is sensitive to MPTP-induced neurotoxicity, and therefore it is proposed as a suitable model for the study of experimental Parkinsonism beyond the motor circuits. In summary, this research represents a reasonable contribution to the scientific community in different aspects. On the one hand, a longitudinal study of the present dimensons considering both males and females in the O. degus had never been done before. First place, it provides validation of different experimental procedures and protocols in this species. Second place, the results presented in this thesis contribute to a better characterization of the O. degus, providing a starting point for future studies in the field of physiopathology and guidelines for veterinary care to early diagnosis and monitorization. On the other hand, the findings obtained support the validity of this species as a unique tool for aging research in the context of multimorbidity, possesing similarities with humans that are not present in other preclinical models. In additionally, the sex-related differences found increase the value of this model, since it offers the possibility of approaching different scientific questions from the sex perspective. Finally, the results derived from the present project set the basis for future studies that focus both in the better characterization of the model and in the individual susceptibility to different age-associated disorders considering the sex differences.
L'aspettativa di vita a livello globale è aumentata drasticamente nell'ultimo secolo, con il conseguente aumento della percentuale di persone con più di 65 anni. Purtroppo, l’aumento della longevità non è stato accompagnato da un aumento degli anni di "vita libera dalla malattia". Al contrario, l'incidenza e l'impatto (sociale ed economico) delle malattie legate all'età sono aumentati in parallelo. Per tutti questi motivi, lo studio dei meccanismi associati all'invecchiamento è un'area di vitale importanza per identificare quali caratteristiche dell’invecchiamento sono correlate alla comparsa di patologie associate all'età, come le malattie cardiovascolari, il cancro e i disturbi neurodegenerativi. Inoltre, l'invecchiamento della popolazione è caratterizzato dall’insorgenza di specifiche condizioni concomitanti, tra cui la perdita di funzioni cognitive e fisiche, la politerapia o la multimorbilità. A questo proposito, è fondamentale considerare l'ampia comunicazione che esiste tra diversi tessuti e sistemi di organi. In altre parole, i cambiamenti che si verificano a livello sistemico possono avere un effetto a livello del sistema nervoso centrale e vice versa. È dimostrato che l'invecchiamento si manifesta a livello clinico quando c'è uno squilibrio tra il danno cellulare e i meccanismi di compensazione. È evidente, però, che questo processo e la predisposizione alla multimorbilità si manifestano in modo eterogeneo tra diversi individui. Questa variabilità individuale appare come il risultato dell'interazione tra diversi fattori biologici, come la genetica o il sesso biologico, e fattori esterni, come l'ambiente, la dieta o i fattori di condizionamento socioeconomici. In particolare, negli ultimi decenni è stato sempre più riconosciuto il ruolo del sesso biologico e del genere nella comparsa di diverse patologie, nella prognosi e nella risposta ai trattamenti. Nonostante ciò, l'inclusione del sesso (e del genere) come variabile rappresenta ancora una necessità nella ricerca clinica e preclinica. La ricerca sull'invecchiamento nei pazienti umani presenta degli ostacoli. In questo senso, l'uso di modelli sperimentali è molto utile nelle fasi precliniche e può aiutare a comprendere la natura dei meccanismi alla base dell'invecchiamento e come le sue interazioni possano predisporre alla patologia. Negli ultimi anni, l'Octodon degus (O. degus) è stato proposto come modello importante per la ricerca biomedica. A differenza dei roditori tradizionali, l’O. degus è diurno e presenta svariate caratteristiche biologiche simili all'uomo, compreso lo sviluppo di alcuni tratti patologici associati all'invecchiamento umano; tra questi, sono stati descritti la comparsa spontanea di placche di beta-amiloide e depositi di proteina tau fosforilata e disfunzioni postsinaptiche. Esiste anche un elevato grado di omologia con le più comuni proteine associate alle malattie neurodegenerative (beta-amiloide, tau, alpha-sinucleina e APOE). Inoltre, in questo modello sono stati descritti alcuni cambiamenti legati all'età, come attivazione astrocitaria e marcatori dello stress ossidativo, apoptosi neuronale, alterazioni della materia bianca simili a quelle dell'invecchiamento umano, disfunzioni cognitive e comportamentali, diabete di tipo II, cataratta, alterazioni della retina e cambiamenti del ritmo circadiano. Pertanto, questo modello rappresenta un'alternativa promettente per riprodurre lo scenario di multimorbilità che si riscontra nell'invecchiamento umano. Tuttavia, diversi aspetti della biologia dell’O. degus non sono stati caratterizzati ancora. Con queste premesse, l'obiettivo principale di questa tesi è stato quello di utilizzare il modello di invecchiamento naturale O. degus per esplorare i cambiamenti sistemici e cerebrali che si verificano con l'età, nonché la loro interazione, tenendo conto dell’influenza del sesso. A tal fine, sono stati condotti studi su un totale di 110 animali di età compresa tra i 6 mesi e i 7 anni, suddivisi per età, sesso o trattamento. I dati presentati in questa tesi sono il risultato della combinazione dell’analisi in vivo (analiti plasmatici, funzione cardiaca e comportamento), con la valutazione post mortem in diverse aree cerebrali dei processi neuroinfiammatori, cambiamenti nella composizione lipidica, perossidazione lipidica e morte neuronale. La prima parte dei risultati di questo lavoro comprende l’analisi del profilo biochimico specifico del sesso nel sangue di O. degus durante l'invecchiamento. Gli analiti studiati ci hanno permesso di esaminare il metabolismo generale, le funzioni epatiche, renali e pancreatiche, lo stato ossidativo e infiammatorio. Abbiamo riscontrato che la maggior parte dei parametri era significativamente alterata negli animali invecchiati, con differenze tra machi e femmine. In particolare, i livelli di proteine totali, colesterolo e calcio sono risultati significativamente più elevati negli O. degus anziani rispetto a quelli più giovani. Gli analiti analizzati hanno indicato che questi animali sviluppano disfunzioni epatiche, renali e pancreatiche associate all'invecchiamento. Inoltre, i livelli di ossidazione e infiammazione plasmatica sono risultati significativamente più elevati negli animali anziani rispetto a quelli giovani. Nell’invecchiamento, differenze legate al sesso sono state trovate, soprattutto nei marcatori del metabolismo epatico, muscolare e renale, negli stati redox e infiammatori. Le differenze maggiori sono state riscontrate nello stato ossidativo, con livelli più elevati nei maschi rispetto alle femmine. A causa dell'elevata variabilità interindividuale dei dati, soprattutto nei gruppi più anziani, le analisi statistiche non hanno mostrato differenze significative in alcuni parametri, tra cui i livelli di glucosio o gli indicatori di infiammazione. Questa situazione è di grande interesse poiché, tenendo conto che gli animali di questo studio non sono geneticamente identici e che sono stati tenuti in condizioni ambientali identiche, solo alcuni di essi sono suscettibili allo sviluppo di stati patologici sub-clinici che possono predisporre all’insorgenza di malattie croniche associate all'invecchiamento. Il secondo blocco di risultati è relativo allo studio della funzione cardiaca in vivo, valutata mediante elettrocardiografia. In questa sezione sono stati determinati gli intervalli di normalità per la frequenza cardiaca, la durata e il voltaggio delle onde e degli intervalli dell’elettrocardiogramma, nonché la deviazione dell'asse elettrico. L'analisi statistica ha rivelato che i parametri che mostravano le maggiori differenze in base al sesso sono stati la maggiore incidenza di aritmie e la maggiore deviazione dell'asse elettrico del cuore nei maschi rispetto alle femmine. Inoltre, sono state rilevate alcune modifiche dell'elettrocardiogramma nel confronto tra le diverse età. La frequenza cardiaca è diminuita in modo significativo negli animali di età più avanzata, con i maschi più colpiti delle femmine. La durata del complesso QRS è aumentata significativamente nelle femmine con l'avanzare dell'età, ma non nei maschi. Infine, la durata dell'intervallo QT delle femmine più giovani era significativamente più breve rispetto a quello dei maschi della stessa età, mentre nella fase senescente la situazione era invertita. Pertanto, i dati ottenuti mostrano che O. degus sviluppa alterazioni cardiache spontanee associate all'invecchiamento che differiscono tra maschi e femmine, il che aggiunge valore al suo potenziale utilizzo come modello naturale per le indagini sul sistema cardiovascolare. In terzo luogo, abbiamo analizzato il deterioramento cognitivo associato all'invecchiamento in modo genere-dipendente e la sua possibile relazione con lo stato neuroinfiammatorio (microglia e astrociti) nell'ippocampo dorsale. Durante tutte le fasi sperimentali gli O. degus anziani (>4 anni) hanno mostrato un declino cognitivo molto significativo rispetto agli animali giovani. È interessante notare che, indagando le possibili differenze associate al sesso degli animali, abbiamo riscontrato che queste, pur non essendo state riscontrate negli animali più giovani, erano significative in quelli più anziani. Pertanto, nelle varie sessioni di allenamento, le femmine hanno mostrato una performance migliore rispetto ai maschi; la situazione si è invertita nel giorno del test finale. Gli studi post mortem hanno rivelato che, in tutte le sotto-aree dell'ippocampo dorsale analizzate, la neuroinfiammazione aumentava significativamente negli animali più anziani, con livelli di immunomarcatura basale per microglia e astrociti più elevati nei maschi rispetto alle femmine. Le analisi di correlazione hanno indicato che l'aumento della neuroinfiammazione è correlato a prestazioni cognitive peggiori, soprattutto nelle aree del giro dentato e del Cornu Ammonis (regione 1). Le informazioni derivate da questi studi dimostrano per la prima volta il declino cognitivo associato all'età in O. degus e la sua relazione con la neuroinfiammazione nell'ippocampo dorsale, con una componente di variabilità interindividuale. Il quarto blocco di risultati corrisponde all'analisi della composizione lipidica nel cervello di O. degus durante l'invecchiamento, in relazione al sesso. A tal fine, sono state analizzate quattro aree cerebrali: corteccia prefrontale (CPF), striato, corteccia e cervelletto. L'analisi degli estratti lipidici totali ha mostrato che le variazioni delle specie lipidiche nella CPF, nello striato e nella corteccia erano più influenzate dall'età degli animali che dal sesso, mentre nel cervelletto entrambe le variabili influenzavano la composizione lipidica. I cambiamenti osservati durante l'invecchiamento sono specifici per ogni regione, mentre quelli dei glicosfingolipidi sono comuni a tutte le regioni. Le maggiori differenze legate al sesso sono state riscontrate nei gangliosidi, a tutte le età, mentre la sfingomielina e i solfatidi sono risultati significativamente diversi nel confronto tra maschi e femmine in età senile. Infine, dato il suo ruolo chiave nei circuiti della memoria spaziale, nella CPF è stata analizzata la perossidazione lipidica (POL), di cui ne è stato riscontrato un aumento significativo durante l'invecchiamento e nel confronto tra maschi e femmine. Inoltre, una POL più elevata correlava in modo significativo con prestazioni cognitive peggiori. Questi risultati, da un lato rappresentano una prima informazione nella caratterizzazione dei lipidi cerebrali di questo modello, dall’altro confermano che il sesso costituisce un’ulteriore variabile per comprendere il diverso grado di neurodegenerazione associata all'età, nonché la diversa incidenza di alcune malattie, come il morbo di Alzheimer, in maschi e femmine. Infine, O. degus è stato validato come modello di parkinsonismo sperimentale basato sull'intossicazione da 1-metil-4-fenil-1,2,3,6-tetraidropiridina (MPTP). Gli animali intossicati da MPTP hanno mostrato una disregolazione dei livelli di glucosio nel sangue, oltre a disturbi motori e cognitivi. L'analisi post mortem ha rivelato una perdita notevolmente significativa di neuroni dopaminergici nella Substantia Nigra pars compacta (SNpc) e nell'area tegmentale ventrale (ATV), sebbene i terminali dopaminergici non fossero alterati. Analogamente, negli animali intossicati da MPTP è stata rilevata una riduzione altamente significativa dei neuroni noradrenergici nel locus coeruleus (LC). Questi risultati sono stati accompagnati da un aumento significativo delle risposte microgliali e astrogliali nel mesencefalo ventrale (SNpc e ATV), nello striato, nell'ippocampo dorsale e nel LC degli animali “parkinsonizzati”. Questi risultati dimostrano, per la prima volta, che O. degus è sensibile alla neurotossicità indotta dall'MPTP, rendendolo un modello adatto per lo studio del parkinsonismo sperimentale, al di là della compromissione motoria. In conclusione, questa ricerca offre un contributo ragionevole alla comunità scientifica sotto diversi aspetti. Da un lato, uno studio longitudinale di questa portata che considera maschi e femmine in O. degus non è mai stato condotto prima. In primo luogo, fornisce la convalida di protocolli che non erano stati utilizzati in precedenza in questa specie. In secondo luogo, i risultati presentati in questa tesi contribuiscono a una migliore caratterizzazione di O. degus, fornendo un punto di partenza per futuri studi sulla fisiopatologia e linee guida veterinarie per la diagnosi precoce e il monitoraggio delle alterazioni. D'altra parte, i risultati ottenuti confermano che questa specie è uno strumento unico per la ricerca sull'invecchiamento nel contesto della multimorbilità, con somiglianze con l'uomo che non sono presenti in altri modelli preclinici. Inoltre, le differenze associate al sesso riscontrate aumentano il valore di questo modello, in quanto offre la possibilità di affrontare studi futuri da una prospettiva sessuale in fisiologia e patologia. Infine, i risultati presentati in questa tesi pongono le basi per studi futuri che si concentrano sia sull'ulteriore caratterizzazione del modello sia sulla suscettibilità individuale allo sviluppo di malattie associate all'età, con la possibilità di studiare le differenze di sesso.
SYSTEMIC ALTERATIONS AND BRAIN CHANGES IN PHYSIOLOGY AND PATHOLOGY. THE OCTODON DEGUS AS A MODEL OF AGING AND MULTIMORBIDITY / L. Cuenca Bermejo ; TUTORS: A. PRINETTI, M.T. HERRERO EZQUERRO ; COORDINATOR UNIMI: C. SFORZA ; COORDINATOR UNIVERSITY OF MURCIA: E. LARQUÉ DAZA. Dipartimento di Biotecnologie Mediche e Medicina Traslazionale, 2023 Jun 15. 34. ciclo, Anno Accademico 2021.
SYSTEMIC ALTERATIONS AND BRAIN CHANGES IN PHYSIOLOGY AND PATHOLOGY. THE OCTODON DEGUS AS A MODEL OF AGING AND MULTIMORBIDITY
L. CUENCA BERMEJO
2023
Abstract
The worldwide life expectancy has experienced a dramatic rise in the last century, resulting in an increase in the proportion of people aged over 65 years old. Unfortunately, this increase in longevity has not been accompanied by an increase in the years of "disease-free life". Rather, the incidence and impact (social and economic) of age-associated diseases have increased in parallel. Thus, the study of the mechanisms associated with aging is an area of vital importance to identify which characteristics of aging are related to the appearance of age-associated pathologies, such as cardiovascular diseases, cancer and neurodegenerative disorders. In addition, the aging of the population is represented by the emergence of specific concomitant conditions, including loss of cognitive and physical function, polypharmacy or multimorbidity. In this sense, it is key to consider the extensive communication that exists between different tissues and organ systems. That is, changes that occur at the systemic level can have an effect at the central nervous system level, and vice versa. Several evidence have pointed out that aging manifests at the clinical level when there is an imbalance between cell damage and compensatory mechanisms. However, it is evident that this process, as well as the susceptibility to multimorbidity, affects individuals in a heterogeneous manner. This individual variability can be explained by the interaction among different biological factors, such as genetics or biological sex, and external factors, such as the environment, diet or socioeconomic determinants. In particular, the role of biological sex and gender in different pathologies, prognosis and response to treatments has been increasingly recognized. However, the inclusion of sex (and gender) as a variable still represents a need in clinical and preclinical research. Performing aging studies in human patients presents several obstacles. In this sense, the use of experimental models is very useful in pre-clinical phases and can help to understand the nature of the mechanisms underlying aging and how their interactions may predispose to pathology. In recent years, the Octodon degus (O. degus) has been proposed as a relevant tool in biomedical research. Unlike traditional rodents, the O. degus is diurnal and shows several biological characteristics similar to humans, including the development of some pathological traits associated with human aging. Among them, it has been evidenced the spontaneous appearance of pathological features such as beta-amyloid plaques and phosphorylated tau protein deposits, as well as postsynaptic dysfunction. Likewise, there is a high degree of homology with the most frequent neurodegenerative disease-related proteins (beta-amyloid, tau, alpha-synuclein and APOE). In addition, some age-related changes have been described in this model, such as astrocytic activation and oxidative stress markers, neuronal apoptosis, white matter changes similar to those of human aging, cognitive and behavioral dysfunction, type II diabetes, cataracts, retinal alterations and circadian rhythm changes. For all these reasons, this model represents a promising alternative to reproduce the multimorbidity scenario found in human aging. However, several aspects of the O. degus biology have not been characterized yet. With this in mind, the main objective of this thesis was the characterization of the O. degus as a natural model of aging by exploring systemic and brain changes along aging, as well as their interaction, including sex as an experimental variable. For this purpose, studies were performed on a total of 110 animals aged from 6 months old to 7 years old, which were divided according to age, sex or treatments. The data presented in this thesis are the result of the combination of in vivo analyses (plasma analytes, cardiac function and behavior), with the post mortem evaluation in different brain areas of neuroinflammatory processes, changes in lipid composition, lipid peroxidation and neuronal death. The first block of results of this work provides the sex-specific values of the biochemical profile in the blood of O. degus during aging. The analytes determined allowed us to examine the general metabolism, hepatic, renal and pancreatic functions, oxidation and inflammatory status. We found that most parameters were significantly altered in aged animals, with differences between males and females. The analytes analyzed indicated that these animals develop hepatic, renal and pancreatic dysfunction associated with aging. Also, plasma oxidation and inflammation levels were significantly increased in older animals compared to younger animals. Differences between males and females were also found along aging, specially in the analytes related to general and liver, muscle, and kidney metabolism, to redox-status or to inflammatory status. The biggest differences were related to oxidative status, suggesting higher oxidation in males versus females. Due to the high inter-individual variability of the data, especially accentuated in the older groups, the statistical analyses did not show significant differences in some parameters, such as glucose levels or inflammation indicators. This situation is of great interest since, taking into account that the animals in this study are not genetically identical and that they have been maintained in the same environmental conditions, only some of them are susceptible to develop sub-clinical pathological states that may predispose to the development of chronic diseases associated with aging. The second block of results shows the study of in vivo cardiac function evaluated by electrocardiography. In this section, the normal ranges for the heart rate, duration and voltage of the electrocardiogram waves and intervals, as well as electrical axis deviation, were determined. The statistical analysis revealed that the parameters that showed the greatest differences according to sex were the higher incidence of arrhythmias and greater deviation of the electrical axis of the heart in males than in females. Likewise, some electrocardiogram modifications were detected when comparing the different ages. Heart rate decreased significantly at older ages, with males being more affected than females. QRS complex duration was significantly increased in females as they aged, but not in males. Finally, the QT interval duration of younger females was significantly shorter than that of males of the same age, while in the senile stage this situation was reversed. Therefore, the data obtained showed that O. degus develop spontaneous cardiac alterations associated with aging that differ between males and females, adding value to this model for use as a natural model for investigations of the cardiovascular system. Thirdly, we analyzed the cognitive impairment associated with aging with a sex perspective, and its possible relationship with the neuroinflammatory status (microglia and astrocytes) in the dorsal hippocampus. Considering the effect of age, aged O. degus (>4 years) showed a very significant cognitive impairment when they were compared to young animals. Interestingly, when possible differences associated with the sex were investigated, we found that they were significant in the aged animals: during the training sessions, the aged females showed a better performance than the aged males, which was reversed on the day of the final test. Post mortem studies revealed that, in all dorsal hippocampal subareas analyzed, neuroinflammation was significantly increased in older animals, being the basal immunolabeling levels for microglia and astrocytes higher in males than in females. Correlation analyses indicated that increased neuroinflammation is related to worse cognitive performance, especially in the dentate gyrus and Cornu Ammonis subfield 1. The information derived from these studies characterizes for the first time age-associated cognitive decline in O. degus and its relationship to neuroinflammation in the dorsal hippocampus, with a component of inter-individual variability. The fourth block of results corresponds to the analysis of the lipid composition in the brain of O. degus during aging, in both males and females. For this purpose, four brain areas were analyzed: prefrontal cortex (PFC), striatum, cortex and cerebellum. Analysis of total lipid extracts showed that changes in lipid species in the PFC, striatum and cortex were more influenced by the age of the animals than by their sex, while in cerebellum both variables influenced more significantly the lipid composition. The changes observed during aging were region-specific, those in glycosphingolipids being common to all regions. The greatest sex-associated differences were found in gangliosides at all ages, while sphingomyelin and sulfatides were significantly different when comparing males and females of senile age. Finally, given its key role in spatial memory circuits, lipid peroxidation (POL) was analyzed in the PFC. We found that it was significantly increased along aging, males showing significant higher levels of POL than females. In addition, higher POL significantly correlated with worse cognitive performance. On the one hand, these results represent a first piece of information in the brain lipid characterization of this model. On the other hand, these data support the inclusion of sex as a variable to understand differential age-associated neurodegeneration, as well as the higher prevalence of certain diseases such as Alzheimer's disease. Finally, we validated the use of O. degus as a model of experimental Parkinsonism based on 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydro-pyridine (MPTP) intoxication. MPTP intoxicated animals showed dysregulation of blood glucose levels, together with motor and cognitive alterations. Post-mortem analysis revealed a very significant loss of dopaminergic neurons in the Substantia Nigra pars compacta (SNpc) and in the ventral tegmental area (VTA), although dopaminergic terminals were not altered. Similarly, a highly significant reduction of noradrenergic neurons in the locus coeruleus (LC) was detected in MPTP-intoxicated animals. These findings were accompanied by a significant increase in microglial and astroglial response in the ventral midbrain (SNpc and VTA), striatum, dorsal hippocampus and LC of parkinsonized animals. These results demonstrate, for the first time, that O. degus is sensitive to MPTP-induced neurotoxicity, and therefore it is proposed as a suitable model for the study of experimental Parkinsonism beyond the motor circuits. In summary, this research represents a reasonable contribution to the scientific community in different aspects. On the one hand, a longitudinal study of the present dimensons considering both males and females in the O. degus had never been done before. First place, it provides validation of different experimental procedures and protocols in this species. Second place, the results presented in this thesis contribute to a better characterization of the O. degus, providing a starting point for future studies in the field of physiopathology and guidelines for veterinary care to early diagnosis and monitorization. On the other hand, the findings obtained support the validity of this species as a unique tool for aging research in the context of multimorbidity, possesing similarities with humans that are not present in other preclinical models. In additionally, the sex-related differences found increase the value of this model, since it offers the possibility of approaching different scientific questions from the sex perspective. Finally, the results derived from the present project set the basis for future studies that focus both in the better characterization of the model and in the individual susceptibility to different age-associated disorders considering the sex differences.File | Dimensione | Formato | |
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