Protozoa and protozoal infections in chelonian

Protozoa are common findings in chelonian practice, but the impact of many species on the animals' health status is still inadequately known and understood. The present work aims to provide clinical, diagnostic and therapeutic updates on the main protozoan species that can infect turtles and tortoises: it covers many genera across amoebas (Entamoebidae), flagellates (Tritrichomonadida, Diplomonadida), ciliates (Ciliophora), cryptosporidia (Cryptosporidiidae), coccidia (Eimeriidae, Sarcocystiidae, Haemogregarinidae, Hepatozoidae, Karyolysidae), haemosporidians (Haemoproteidae), piroplasms (Piroplasmida) and trypanosomes (Trypanosomatidae). Brief biological and morphological features, epidemiology, diagnostic techniques, clinical behaviour and pathological lesions are described. In order to avoid repetitions, therapy is presented and discussed as a self-standing paragraph at the end of the review.