Experimental methods in chemical engineering: X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy-XPS

X‐ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) is a quantitative surface analysis technique used to identify the elemental composition, empiricalformula, chemical state, and electronic state of an element. The kinetic energy of the electrons escaping from the material surface irradiated by anx‐ray beam produces a spectrum. XPS identifies chemical species and quantifies their content and the interactions between surface species. It isminimally destructive and is sensitive to a depth between 1–10 nm. The elemental sensitivity is in the order of 0.1 atomic %. It requires ultra highvacuum (1×107−Pa) in the analysis chamber and measurement time varies from minutes to hours per sample depending on the analyte. XPSdates back 50 years ago. New spectrometers, detectors, and variable size photon beams, reduce analysis time and increase spatial resolution. AnXPS bibliometric map of the 10 000 articles indexed by Web of Science[1]identifies five research clusters: (i) nanoparticles, thin films, and surfaces;(ii) catalysis, oxidation, reduction, stability, and oxides; (iii) nanocomposites, graphene, graphite, and electro‐chemistry; (iv) photocatalysis,water, visible light, andTiO2; and (v) adsorption, aqueous solutions, and waste water.