Error signals as powerful stimuli for the operant conditioning-like process of the fictive respiratory output in a brainstem–spinal cord preparation from rats

Proprioceptive input induced operant conditioning-like process on respiratory activity in vitro. Afferences contingent on respiratory bursts increase their frequency and amplitude. Long and short term effects are described. Diaphragmatic proprioceptive inputs represent unconditioned stimuli with hedonic features. A forward model is assumed to interpret the results.