Interpersonal synchronization in face-to-face vs. remote education: An EEG and ECG hyperscanning study

Background and aims: Interpersonal synchronization is a key component of effective teaching and learning, but little is known about how it differs between face-to-face and remote settings. This study investigates interpersonal synchronization in face-to-face (FTF) versus remote learning (RL) environments through electroencephalography (EEG) and electrocardiography (ECG) hyperscanning. Methods: Eight groups of 3 students and 1 lecturer (N = 32) engaged in both conditions, consisting of a baseline, a 20-minute lecture, and a 20-minute interactive task. Neural synchronization was assessed using inter-individual Euclidean Distance (EuDist) across five EEG frequency bands (delta, theta, alpha, beta, gamma). Cardiac synchronization was assessed via intersubject correlation of heart rate (ISC-HR). Learning outcomes and perception were measured through a series of self-report measures and validated questionnaires. Results: Results revealed a modest but significant effect of learning condition across all EEG bands, with significantly lower EuDist values in the FTF condition compared to RL, indicating higher inter-individual neural alignment when participants were physically co-present. Additionally, task-specific effects emerged in delta, theta, beta, and gamma bands, with interactive tasks generally associated with lower dissimilarity. Furthermore, ISC-HR was significantly higher in the FTF condition compared to the RL condition, while no significant task-specific differences emerged. Self-report measures further indicated higher perceived interpersonal closeness and lesson satisfaction in the FTF condition, while learning outcomes remained stable across modalities. Conclusion: These findings demonstrate that physical co-presence enhances both cortical and autonomic synchronization during instruction, particularly under dialogic conditions, and underscore the role of embodied interaction in promoting shared cognitive and affective engagement in educational contexts.