Citizenship as a relational field: interests and identities across cleavages and seams

For people in antiquity, citizenship was crucial, since only citizens enjoyed full rights. Citizenship encompassed not only rights but also responsibilities, including the duty to train and be physically prepared to defend their polis. Citizens who neglected this duty were often labeled idiotai, or “untrained”. Citizenship granted access to active participation in Olympic events in the stadium, and only citizen-aristocrats could compete as horse and chariot owners in the hippodrome. This structure changed with the rise of Macedonian kings like Alexander I, Archelaus, Philip II, and significantly with Alexander the Great and his successors, who divided and ruled the vast empire he had established. This shift also transformed public perceptions of citizenship and fandom, as exemplified by the Olympic boxing match between Cleitomachus of Thebes and Aristonicus of Alexandria. With the expansion of the Roman Empire, the Games opened to other nations, and in 212 AD, Emperor Caracalla’s Constitutio Antoniniana (Antonine Edict) extended Roman citizenship to all free individuals across the empire. This development enabled athletes from across the Roman Empire to participate in the Olympic Games, broadening the event’s inclusivity beyond its traditional Greek confines.