Introduction and Aim: ATP citrate lyase (ACLY) is a key enzyme in lipid metabolism, responsible for the generation of cytosolic acetyl-CoA from mitochondrial citrate. The acetyl-CoA produced represents an essential precursor both for de novo fatty acid synthesis, through its conversion to malonyl-CoA mediated by acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC), and for sterol biosynthesis via the mevalonate pathway, regulated by HMG-CoA reductase (HMGR). Given its central role in the regulation of lipogenesis and cholesterol synthesis, ACLY has emerged as an important pharmacological target. In this context, bempedoic acid, a first-in-class ACLY inhibitor approved for clinical use, is currently employed in the treatment of hypercholesterolemia in statin-intolerant patients to reduce cardiovascular risk. The aim of this project was to investigate the impact of ACLY gene silencing on hepatic metabolism, with particular emphasis on the regulation of lipid metabolism in a model of diet-induced obesity and atherosclerosis. Methods: Wild-type mice and Ldlr⁻/⁻ mice were treated with intraperitoneal injections of GalNAc-conjugated siRNAs, specifically a negative control siRNA (GalNAc-siCtrl) or an siRNA targeting ACLY (GalNAc-siACLY). Animals were maintained for 18 weeks on a high-cholesterol Western-type diet (WTD) to induce lipid metabolic alterations. At the end of the treatment, major metabolic parameters and molecular mechanisms associated with the modulation of ACLY activity were analysed, with particular focus on plasma and hepatic lipid profiles. To assess the extra-hepatic and systemic safety and toxicity of GalNAc-siACLY, Asgr1⁻/⁻ mice were subjected to the same therapeutic and dietary regimen. These animals lack the hepatic ASGR1 receptor, which is responsible for selective liver uptake of GalNAc-conjugated molecules. In this group, key metabolic and immuno-inflammatory parameters were also evaluated. In parallel, the molecular effects of ACLY inhibition were investigated in in vitro models of hepatic steatosis using the HepG2 cell line. Cells were treated with free fatty acids, namely palmitate (200 µM), oleate (400 µM), or a combination of palmitate and oleate at a 2:1 ratio, to mimic intracellular lipid accumulation typical of hepatic steatosis. This approach allowed the evaluation of cellular and molecular mechanisms involved in the regulation of lipid metabolism in response to ACLY modulation. Results: After 18 weeks of diet, ACLY gene silencing in wild-type mice led to a significant reduction in plasma cholesterol and triglyceride levels, specifically lowering LDL-associated lipids. The improvement in the circulating lipid profile was driven by an initial increase in hepatic expression of the low-density lipoprotein receptor (LDLR). Consistently, these metabolic effects were absent in Ldlr⁻/⁻ mice, indicating a functional dependence on LDLR. Wild-type ACLY knockdown mice, despite showing similar levels of hepatic steatosis, are characterised by greater macrosteatosis formation with lower microsteatosis, and consequently prevalence of larger lipid droplets. These droplets were enriched in polar lipids, particularly phospholipid precursors, at the expense of neutral lipids such as triglycerides and cholesteryl esters. Moreover, hepatic ACLY gene silencing resulted in reduced mitochondrial energy metabolism and downregulation of major transcription factors involved in metabolic control. In vitro studies revealed that, at early stages, ACLY inhibition induces an increase in both anabolic and catabolic fatty acid pathways, particularly promoting β-oxidation and lipid droplet mobilization. With prolonged exposure to fatty acids, a progressive remodelling of hepatocellular metabolism was observed, characterized by reduced mitochondrial activity and the activation of alternative compensatory mechanisms. In the Asgr1⁻/⁻ model, the absence of ACLY silencing in both liver and spleen was confirmed, excluding nonspecific GalNAc uptake in these tissues. However, metabolic analyses revealed increased basal plasma glucose levels and a consequent shift in energy substrate preference, suggesting impact of GalNAc-siACLY over pancreatic functions. Conclusion: Overall, these results indicate that, under conditions of metabolic syndrome, ACLY gene silencing improves the circulating lipid profile in an LDLR-dependent manner and independently of de novo cholesterol synthesis. At the hepatic level, ACLY knockdown dos does not improve liver steatosis burden, but induces profound remodelling of the lipidome and cellular metabolism, highlighting how ACLY inhibition affects not only lipid homeostasis but also energy balance and adaptive responses in hepatocytes.
Introduzione e scopo: ATP citrato liasi (ACLY) è un enzima chiave del metabolismo lipidico, responsabile della conversione di acetil-CoA citosolico a partire dal citrato mitocondriale. L’acetil-CoA generato costituisce un precursore fondamentale sia per la de novo sintesi degli acidi grassi, attraverso la sua conversione in malonil-CoA mediata dell’acetil-CoA carbossilasi (ACC), sia per la biosintesi degli steroli tramite la via del mevalonato, regolata dall’enzima HMGCoA reduttasi (HMGR). Considerato il suo ruolo centrale nella regolazione della lipogenesi e della sintesi del colesterolo, ACLY è emerso come un importante target farmacologico. In questo contesto, acido bempedoico, first-in-class inibitore di ACLY approvato in clinica, è attualmente utilizzato per il trattamento dell’ipercolesterolemia in pazienti intolleranti alle statine al fine di ridurre il rischio cardiovascolare. Lo scopo del progetto è stato quello di investigare l’impatto del silenziamento genico di ACLY a livello del metabolismo epatico, con particolare attenzione alla regolazione del metabolismo lipidico in un modello di obesità indotta dalla dieta e aterosclerosi. Metodi: Topi wild type e topi Ldlr⁻/⁻ sono stati sottoposti a trattamento mediante iniezioni intraperitoneali di siRNA coniugati a GalNAc, rispettivamente un siRNA di controllo negativo (GalNAc-siCtrl) e un siRNA diretto contro ACLY (GalNAc-siACLY). Gli animali sono stati mantenuti per 18 settimane in regime di dieta ad alto contenuto di colesterolo (WTD) al fine di indurre alterazioni del metabolismo lipidico. Al termine del trattamento, sono stati analizzati i principali parametri metabolici e i meccanismi molecolari associati alla modulazione dell’attività di ACLY, concentrandosi particolarmente sul profilo plasmatico ed epatico lipidico. Per testare la sicurezza e la presenza di effetti extra-epatici di GalNAc-siACLY, topi Asgr -/- sono stati sottoposti allo stesso regime terapeutico e dietetico dei gruppi precedenti. Questi animali mancano, infatti, del recettore epatico ASGR1, recettore responsabile dell’uptake selettivo da parte del fegato. Anche in questo gruppo sono stati valutati i principali parametri metabolici e immuno-infiammatori. Parallelamente, gli effetti molecolari dell’inibizione di ACLY sono stati investigati in modelli in vitro di steatosi epatica utilizzando la linea cellulare HepG2. Le cellule sono state trattate con acidi grassi liberi, in particolare palmitato (200 µM), oleato (400 µM) oppure una combinazione di palmitato e oleato in rapporto 2:1, al fine di mimare le condizioni di accumulo lipidico intracellulare tipiche della steatosi epatica. Questo approccio ha permesso di valutare i meccanismi cellulari e molecolari coinvolti nella regolazione del metabolismo lipidico in risposta alla modulazione di ACLY. Risultati: Dopo 18 settimane di dieta, il silenziamento genico di ACLY nei topi wild type ha portato alla riduzione significativa dei livelli plasmatici di colesterolo e di trigliceridi, nello specifico riducendone i livelli a livello delle lipoproteine LDL. Il miglioramento del profilo circolante dei lipidi è determinato da un iniziale aumento di espressione dei livelli del recettore delle LDL (LDLR) a livello epatico. Coerentemente, tali effetti metabolici sono risultati assenti nei topi Ldlr⁻/⁻, indicando una dipendenza funzionale dal recettore LDL. I topi wild type ACLY knockdown, nonostante mostrino livelli simili di steatosi epatica, sono caratterizzati dalla significativa presenza di macrosteatosi e ridotta microsteatosi, con conseguente prevalenza di gocce lipidiche di dimensioni maggiori. Queste ultime sono arricchite in lipidi polari, in particolare precursori di fosfolipidi, a discapito dei lipidi neutri (trigliceridi ed esteri del colesterolo). Inoltre, il silenziamento genico di ACLY a livello epatico porta alla riduzione del metabolismo energetico mitocondriale e dei principali fattori di trascrizione coinvolti nel controllo metabolico. Gli studi in vitro hanno evidenziato che, nelle fasi iniziali, l’inibizione di ACLY induce un aumento sia dei processi anabolici che catabolici degli acidi grassi, promuovendo in particolare la β-ossidazione e la mobilizzazione delle gocce lipidiche. Con l’aumentare del tempo di esposizione agli acidi grassi, si osserva un progressivo rimodellamento del metabolismo epatocitario, caratterizzato da una riduzione dell’attività mitocondriale e dall’attivazione di meccanismi compensatori alternativi. Nel modello Asgr1⁻/⁻ è stata confermata l’assenza di silenziamento di ACLY a livello epatico, escludendo un uptake aspecifico del GalNAc. Tuttavia, le analisi metaboliche hanno rivelato un aumento dei livelli basali di glucosio plasmatico e un conseguente cambiamento nella preferenza del substrato energetico, suggerendo che GalNAc-siACLY abbia un effetto a livello pancreatico. Conclusione: Nel complesso, questi risultati indicano che, in condizioni di sindrome metabolica, il silenziamento del gene ACLY migliora il profilo lipidico circolante in maniera dipendente dal LDLR e indipendente dalla sintesi de novo del colesterolo. A livello epatico, il knockdown di ACLY non migliora il carico di steatosi epatica, ma induce un profondo rimodellamento del lipidoma e del metabolismo cellulare, evidenziando come l’inibizione di ACLY influenzi non solo l’omeostasi lipidica, ma anche il bilancio energetico e le risposte adattative degli epatociti.
IMPACT OF ACLY GENE SILENCING ON HEPATIC LIPID METABOLISM / S. Roda ; tutor: G. D. Norata ; co-tutor: F. Bonacina ; coordinatore: G. D. Norata. - Dipartimento di Scienze Farmacologiche e Biomolecolari Rodolfo Paoletti. Dipartimento di Scienze Farmacologiche e Biomolecolari Rodolfo Paoletti, 2026 May 14. 38. ciclo, Anno Accademico 2024/2025.
IMPACT OF ACLY GENE SILENCING ON HEPATIC LIPID METABOLISM
S. Roda
2026
Abstract
Introduction and Aim: ATP citrate lyase (ACLY) is a key enzyme in lipid metabolism, responsible for the generation of cytosolic acetyl-CoA from mitochondrial citrate. The acetyl-CoA produced represents an essential precursor both for de novo fatty acid synthesis, through its conversion to malonyl-CoA mediated by acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC), and for sterol biosynthesis via the mevalonate pathway, regulated by HMG-CoA reductase (HMGR). Given its central role in the regulation of lipogenesis and cholesterol synthesis, ACLY has emerged as an important pharmacological target. In this context, bempedoic acid, a first-in-class ACLY inhibitor approved for clinical use, is currently employed in the treatment of hypercholesterolemia in statin-intolerant patients to reduce cardiovascular risk. The aim of this project was to investigate the impact of ACLY gene silencing on hepatic metabolism, with particular emphasis on the regulation of lipid metabolism in a model of diet-induced obesity and atherosclerosis. Methods: Wild-type mice and Ldlr⁻/⁻ mice were treated with intraperitoneal injections of GalNAc-conjugated siRNAs, specifically a negative control siRNA (GalNAc-siCtrl) or an siRNA targeting ACLY (GalNAc-siACLY). Animals were maintained for 18 weeks on a high-cholesterol Western-type diet (WTD) to induce lipid metabolic alterations. At the end of the treatment, major metabolic parameters and molecular mechanisms associated with the modulation of ACLY activity were analysed, with particular focus on plasma and hepatic lipid profiles. To assess the extra-hepatic and systemic safety and toxicity of GalNAc-siACLY, Asgr1⁻/⁻ mice were subjected to the same therapeutic and dietary regimen. These animals lack the hepatic ASGR1 receptor, which is responsible for selective liver uptake of GalNAc-conjugated molecules. In this group, key metabolic and immuno-inflammatory parameters were also evaluated. In parallel, the molecular effects of ACLY inhibition were investigated in in vitro models of hepatic steatosis using the HepG2 cell line. Cells were treated with free fatty acids, namely palmitate (200 µM), oleate (400 µM), or a combination of palmitate and oleate at a 2:1 ratio, to mimic intracellular lipid accumulation typical of hepatic steatosis. This approach allowed the evaluation of cellular and molecular mechanisms involved in the regulation of lipid metabolism in response to ACLY modulation. Results: After 18 weeks of diet, ACLY gene silencing in wild-type mice led to a significant reduction in plasma cholesterol and triglyceride levels, specifically lowering LDL-associated lipids. The improvement in the circulating lipid profile was driven by an initial increase in hepatic expression of the low-density lipoprotein receptor (LDLR). Consistently, these metabolic effects were absent in Ldlr⁻/⁻ mice, indicating a functional dependence on LDLR. Wild-type ACLY knockdown mice, despite showing similar levels of hepatic steatosis, are characterised by greater macrosteatosis formation with lower microsteatosis, and consequently prevalence of larger lipid droplets. These droplets were enriched in polar lipids, particularly phospholipid precursors, at the expense of neutral lipids such as triglycerides and cholesteryl esters. Moreover, hepatic ACLY gene silencing resulted in reduced mitochondrial energy metabolism and downregulation of major transcription factors involved in metabolic control. In vitro studies revealed that, at early stages, ACLY inhibition induces an increase in both anabolic and catabolic fatty acid pathways, particularly promoting β-oxidation and lipid droplet mobilization. With prolonged exposure to fatty acids, a progressive remodelling of hepatocellular metabolism was observed, characterized by reduced mitochondrial activity and the activation of alternative compensatory mechanisms. In the Asgr1⁻/⁻ model, the absence of ACLY silencing in both liver and spleen was confirmed, excluding nonspecific GalNAc uptake in these tissues. However, metabolic analyses revealed increased basal plasma glucose levels and a consequent shift in energy substrate preference, suggesting impact of GalNAc-siACLY over pancreatic functions. Conclusion: Overall, these results indicate that, under conditions of metabolic syndrome, ACLY gene silencing improves the circulating lipid profile in an LDLR-dependent manner and independently of de novo cholesterol synthesis. At the hepatic level, ACLY knockdown dos does not improve liver steatosis burden, but induces profound remodelling of the lipidome and cellular metabolism, highlighting how ACLY inhibition affects not only lipid homeostasis but also energy balance and adaptive responses in hepatocytes.| File | Dimensione | Formato | |
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