A Periodization of English Language Teaching in China between Sociopolitical Changes and Language Policies

Even though the status of English language teaching in the Chinese educational system has become a debated topic within Chinese society in recent years, foreign language study – which means English language study in the vast majority of cases – is still one of the “three fundamental subjects” (san zhuke 三主课) of the Chinese curriculum and, consequently, of the gaokao 高考, the Chinese “National College Entrance Examination”, which students have to sit in order to access higher education (Ross, 1992). The recent wave of criticism of English language teaching can also be understood in light of China’s evolving role on the international stage. In fact, foreign language education in China, and English language teaching in particular, can be seen as a “barometer” of the country’s foreign relations with the rest of the world (Ross 1992; Vickers & Zeng 2018; Wu, 2015). This contribution seeks to retrace the development of English language teaching in China up to the present day. Drawing on a revised version of Rao’s (2013) timeline, the author identified seven stages in its history, each defined by the particular status accorded to the English language and its teaching: 1. Imperial China (up to 1912); 2. The Republic of China (1912-1949); 3. Shortly after the establishment of People’s Republic of China (1949-1956); 4. the ‘renaissance’ of English language teaching in the PRC (1956-1966); 5. The Cultural Revolution (1966-1976); 6. The ‘golden age’ of English language teaching in the PRC (1976-2012); and, finally, 7. The Xi Jinping era (2012-). As a matter of fact, official English language teaching in China has already a history of more than one hundred and fifty years and its inception can be traced back to 1862 (Fu, 1986). That year, the Imperial College of Combined Learning (Jingshi Tongwen Guan 京师同文馆) was established in Beijing to prepare translators and delegates who would eventually work for the Office in Charge of the Affairs Concerning All Nations (Zongli Geguo Shiwu Yamen 总理各国事务衙门). The ultimate purpose of establishing the Imperial College was to systematically train personnel with the language skills required to access foreign knowledge considered essential for strengthening the country after its defeats in the two Opium Wars (1839–1842, 1856–1860) against the foreign empires (Wu, 2015). Since then, the development of English language teaching has been inextricably linked to the prevailing political trends in the country. During the years of the Republic of China, and owing to the country’s political affinity with the “West,” English was regarded both as a tool for modernization and as a medium for cultural dissemination (Wu, 2015). However, with the establishment of the People’s Republic of China and the advent of the Sino-Soviet Alliance, it was soon replaced by the Russian language. With the onset of the Sino-Soviet Split from 1956 onwards, the trend was reversed though, and English language teaching began to be actively promoted as a means of accessing the “Western” sources of knowledge deemed essential for the country’s development (Liu, 2015). This “renaissance” era lasted for ten years, until the outbreak of the Cultural Revolution, when the English language was then associated with American imperialism and British colonialism, and English language teachers were accused to be spies for foreign countries and “worshippers of everything foreign” (Liu, 2015: 80). After the end of the Cultural Revolution, and with the launch of the “Reform and Opening-Up” (Gaige Kaifang 改革开放) era, the PRC began to open its doors to the outside world. English subsequently gained the status of a strategic tool for modernization and development, as reflected in its designation in 1978 as “one important fundamental subject” (yi men zhongyao de jiben ke 一门重要的基本课) within the Chinese educational system – alongside Chinese and Mathematics – by the Ministry of Education (ICTR, 2001: 137). After a detailed exposition of the characteristics of each of the first six stages – including the prevailing teaching methods employed for ELT in China at the time – this contribution will turn to the final stage, in order to illustrate the current status of English and its teaching. This is examined in light of the recent developments within Chinese society that took place since Xi Jinping rose to power in 2012, such as the reduction in foreign language lesson hours at the compulsory level introduced by the latest Compulsory Education Curriculum Program (2022 Edition) Formulated by the Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China (Yiwu Jiaoyu Kecheng Fang’an (2022 Nian Ban) Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo Jiaoyubu Zhiding 义务教育课程方案 (2022年版) 中华人民共和国教育部制订) (MOE, 2022), and the appeals of several political representatives – who, given China’s new major international role, question the usefulness of English for the Chinese people and, in some instances, denounce its detrimental influence on society – to either abolish the English component of the gaokao or diminish its relative weight in it. These developments have led to an ongoing debate over the role of English language teaching within the Chinese educational system, with conflicting opinions even among Chinese officials. By retracing the historical evolution of English language teaching in China and its connection to the country’s foreign relations, this study aims to contribute to the academic discussion on the relationship between sociopolitical change and foreign language policy, as well as to the more specific debate concerning the historical status of the English language in China and the teaching methods employed for it over time.