INTRODUCTION: Atherosclerosis, the principal underlying cause of most cardiovascular diseases, progresses from early fatty streaks to advanced unstable plaques that, if ruptured, cause life-threatening events. A hallmark of plaque instability is intraplaque angiogenesis, the formation of neovessels. These neovessels are often immature and leaky, facilitating intraplaque haemorrhage, which exacerbates inflammation, promotes plaque growth, and culminates in rupture and thrombotic complications. While hypoxia is a critical driver of this process, additional pro-angiogenic mechanisms within the plaque microenvironment remain incompletely defined. Atherosclerosis is also an age-associated disease characterized by the accumulation of senescent cells, particularly vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs), which remain metabolically active but exhibit significant morphological changes, mitochondrial dysfunction and adopt a senescence-associated secretory phenotype (SASP). Despite growing recognition of senescent VSMCs’ detrimental roles in atherosclerosis, like sustained local inflammation, matrix degradation, and tissue remodelling, their potential contribution to intraplaque angiogenesis through pro-angiogenic SASP has not yet been elucidated. Moreover, while statin therapy, the most widely used drugs for the prevention and treatment of atherosclerosis, plays a crucial role in managing atherosclerosis by reducing cholesterol levels and promoting plaque stability, its impact on mitochondrial dysfunction and SASP in senescent VSMCs remains largely unexplored. AIM: This study aimed to investigate the interplay between VSMC senescence, mitochondrial dysfunction, SASP, and angiogenesis, and to evaluate the effect of simvastatin on these processes, and to test whether targeting specific SASP-related pathways (VEGF/VEGFR2 and NF-κB) may represent more effective therapeutic strategies. RESULTS: We demonstrated, using both single-cell RNA sequencing datasets and immunohistochemistry, that senescent VSMCs are significantly more abundant in human unstable carotid atherosclerotic plaques than in stable ones. Consequently, based on these premises and in order to study senescent VSMCs more thoroughly, we developed and characterized two in vitro models of VSMC senescence: replicative (or old cells) and doxorubicin-induced mimicking stress-induced premature senescence, by assessing key senescence features such as cell morphology, cell cycle arrest, SASP, and mitochondrial dysfunction. Interestingly, both senescent models displayed an accumulation of dysfunctional mitochondria characterized by reduced mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) and respiration, accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), and an altered mitochondria morphology when compared to their young cells control. Moreover, TFAM and TOM70 expression was found to be downregulated only in old cells suggesting a reduction of mitochondrial biogenesis. In addition, both models of senescent VSMCs showed a significant increase in the gene expression and protein production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, including IL-1β, IL-6, and IL-8, thereby validating the SASP profile. Next, we investigated whether simvastatin could ameliorate age-associated phenotypes in senescent VSMCs. Simvastatin (0.1 μM) improved mitochondrial respiration and reduced ROS production and the inflammatory SASP in both doxorubicin-induced and old VSMCs. Notably, when mevalonic acid, a downstream product of the HMG-CoA reductase pathway, was added, these beneficial effects of simvastatin on mitochondrial function and the SASP were no longer observed. This indicates that simvastatin's impact on mitochondrial respiration and SASP is specifically mediated through the inhibition of HMG-CoA reductase, the enzyme targeted by statins in the cholesterol biosynthesis pathway. Multiplex analysis of the inflammatory SASP in the cell culture medium of the senescent VSMCs confirmed the appropriateness of our in vitro models as doxorubicin-treated and old cells produced significantly more pro-inflammatory proteins such as IL-1β, IFN-γ and TNF-α compared to young cells, as already reported in the literature. Surprisingly, we also found that doxorubicin and old VSMCs produced significantly more pro-angiogenic molecules like Angiopoietin 1 and 2, IL-6, IL-8 and VEGFa, compared to young control cells. Interestingly, VEGFa showed a 4-fold increased concentration in doxorubicin and old cells when compared to young control cells. We next investigated the paracrine effect of the SASP derived from both our senescent VSMC models on angiogenesis, by exposing Human Umbilical Vein Endothelial Cells (HUVECs) to senescent VSMC-conditioned media. HUVECs treated with conditioned media from senescent cells showed enhanced endothelial cell proliferation, migration, and tube formation when compared the their control treated with conditioned medium from young cells. Notably, simvastatin-treated senescent VSMCs secreted significantly lower levels of pro-angiogenic factors, especially VEGFa, compared to their untreated control. Consistently, conditioned media from simvastatin-treated senescent VSMCs led to a significant reduction in HUVECs proliferation, migration, and tube formation compared to untreated media from senescent VSMCs. As VEGF stood out as the main pro-angiogenic factor in our multiplex analysis, we supplemented the conditioned media from senescent VSMCs with rivoceranib, a selective VEGFR2 inhibitor, and assessed its impact on angiogenesis. Interestingly, VEGFR2 inhibition completely abolished SASP induced HUVEC proliferation, migration, and tube formation, confirming the central role of VEGF and its receptor VEGFR2 in mediating the paracrine pro-angiogenic effects of the SASP produced by senescent VSMCs. Since NF-κB is a well-known regulator of the SASP, we pharmacologically inhibited NF-κB activity and we found a significant reduction in VEGF production in senescent VSMCs, suggesting that targeting this pathway could reduce the angiogenic potential of senescent VSMCs. CONCLUSIONS: Overall, our findings underscore the multifaceted role of VSMC senescence in promoting atherosclerotic plaque progression and vulnerability. By integrating transcriptomic, histological, and functional analyses, we identify cellular senescence not only as a passive hallmark of vascular aging but as an active driver of plaque destabilization, particularly through mitochondrial dysfunction and the pro-angiogenic secretory phenotype.
INTRODUZIONE: L'aterosclerosi, principale causa della maggior parte delle malattie cardiovascolari, progredisce dalle strie lipidiche iniziali fino a placche avanzate e instabili che, se soggette a rottura, possono causare eventi potenzialmente letali. Un segno distintivo dell’instabilità della placca è l’angiogenesi intraplacca. I neovasi formati all'interno della placca sono spesso immaturi e permeabili, favorendo l’emorragia intraplacca, che aggrava l'infiammazione, stimola la crescita della placca e può culminare in rottura e complicanze trombotiche. Sebbene l’ipossia rappresenti un fattore chiave in questo processo, i meccanismi pro-angiogenici addizionali nel microambiente della placca rimangono in gran parte non definiti. L’aterosclerosi è anche una malattia associata all’età, caratterizzata dall’accumulo di cellule senescenti, in particolare di cellule muscolari lisce vascolari (VSMC). Queste cellule, pur mantenendo un’attività metabolica, mostrano importanti alterazioni morfologiche, disfunzioni mitocondriali e adottano un fenotipo secretorio associato alla senescenza (SASP). Nonostante la crescente consapevolezza del ruolo dannoso delle VSMC senescenti nell'aterosclerosi—come infiammazione cronica locale, degradazione della matrice extracellulare e rimodellamento tissutale—il loro possibile contributo all'angiogenesi intraplacca attraverso un SASP pro-angiogenico non è stato ancora chiarito. Inoltre, sebbene la terapia con statine sia ampiamente riconosciuta per i suoi effetti ipocolesterolemizzanti e rappresenti un pilastro sia nella prevenzione primaria, sia nella prevenzione secondaria, il loro impatto sulla disfunzione mitocondriale e sul SASP nelle VSMC senescenti rimane in gran parte inesplorato. OBIETTIVO DELLO STUDIO: Questo studio ha l’obiettivo di indagare l’interazione tra la senescenza delle VSMC, la disfunzione mitocondriale, il SASP e l’angiogenesi; valutare l’effetto della simvastatina su questi processi; e verificare se il targeting di specifiche vie correlate al SASP (VEGF/VEGFR2 e NF-κB) possa rappresentare strategie terapeutiche più efficaci. RISULTATI: Abbiamo dimostrato, utilizzando sia datasets di sequenziamento dell’RNA a singola cellula sia l’immunoistochimica, che le VSMC senescenti sono significativamente più abbondanti nelle placche aterosclerotiche umane instabili delle carotidi rispetto a quelle stabili. Di conseguenza, sulla base di queste premesse e per poter studiare più approfonditamente le VSMC senescenti, abbiamo sviluppato e caratterizzato due modelli in vitro di senescenza delle VSMC: uno replicativo (cellule “vecchie”) e uno indotto da doxorubicina, che simula la senescenza prematura da stress. La caratterizzazione è stata effettuata valutando aspetti chiave della senescenza, come la morfologia cellulare, l’arresto del ciclo cellulare, il SASP e la disfunzione mitocondriale. Entrambi i modelli senescenti hanno mostrato un accumulo di mitocondri disfunzionali, con riduzione del potenziale di membrana mitocondriale (MMP), della respirazione mitocondriale, un aumento dei radicali liberi (ROS) e alterazioni morfologiche mitocondriali rispetto alle cellule “giovani” di controllo. Inoltre, l’espressione di TFAM e TOM70 risultava ridotta solo nelle cellule vecchie, suggerendo solo in esse una diminuzione della biogenesi mitocondriale. Inoltre, entrambi i modelli senescenti hanno mostrato un aumento significativo dell'espressione genica e proteica di citochine pro-infiammatorie come IL-1β, IL-6 e IL-8, confermando il profilo SASP. Successivamente, abbiamo testato se la simvastatina (0.1 μM) potesse migliorare i fenotipi associati all’età nelle VSMC senescenti. Dai risultati ottenuti abbiamo visto come la simvastatina è stata in grado di migliorare la respirazione mitocondriale, ridurre la produzione di ROS e attenuare il SASP infiammatorio sia nelle cellule trattate con doxorubicina sia in quelle vecchie. È interessante notare che l’aggiunta di acido mevalonico—un prodotto a valle della via della HMG-CoA reduttasi—ha annullato gli effetti benefici della simvastatina su mitocondri e SASP, indicando che tali effetti sono mediati proprio dall’inibizione dell’HMG-CoA reduttasi, enzima bersaglio delle statine nella via biosintetica del colesterolo. L’analisi multiplex del SASP infiammatorio nel mezzo condizionato delle VSMC senescenti ha confermato la validità del nostro modello: le cellule trattate con doxorubicina e quelle vecchie hanno prodotto quantità significativamente maggiori di proteine pro-infiammatorie, come IL-1β, IFN-γ e TNF-α, rispetto alle cellule giovani, in linea con quanto riportato in letteratura. Sorprendentemente, abbiamo però osservato che le VSMC senescenti producevano livelli significativamente più elevati di fattori pro-angiogenici come angiopoietina 1 e 2, IL-6, IL-8 e VEGFa, rispetto alle cellule giovani. In particolare, la concentrazione di VEGFa risultava aumentata di oltre quattro volte nelle cellule senescenti rispetto al controllo giovane. Abbiamo quindi indagato l’effetto paracrino del SASP derivato dai due modelli senescenti sull’angiogenesi, esponendo cellule endoteliali della vena ombelicale umana (HUVECs) al mezzo condizionato delle VSMC senescenti. Le HUVECs trattate con questi mezzi hanno mostrato aumentata proliferazione, migrazione e formazione di tubuli rispetto a quelle trattate con mezzo da cellule giovani. È importante sottolineare che le VSMC senescenti trattate invece con simvastatina hanno secreto livelli significativamente inferiori di fattori pro-angiogenici, in particolare VEGFa, rispetto alle cellule non trattate. Coerentemente, i mezzi condizionati delle VSMC senescenti trattate con simvastatina hanno ridotto significativamente la proliferazione, la migrazione e la formazione di tubuli nelle HUVECs rispetto ai mezzi non trattati. Poiché VEGF è emerso come il principale fattore pro-angiogenico dalla nostra analisi, abbiamo integrato il mezzo condizionato con rivoceranib, un inibitore selettivo del recettore VEGFR2, per valutare il suo impatto sull'angiogenesi. L’inibizione del recettore VEGFR2 ha completamente abolito la proliferazione, la migrazione e la formazione di tubuli nelle HUVECs, confermando il ruolo centrale del VEGF e del suo recettore VEGFR2 nel mediare gli effetti pro-angiogenici paracrini del SASP delle VSMC senescenti. Dal momento che NF-κB è un noto regolatore del SASP, abbiamo inibito farmacologicamente l’attività di NF-κB e abbiamo riscontrato una riduzione significativa della produzione di VEGF nelle VSMC senescenti, suggerendo che il targeting di questo pathway potrebbe ridurre il potenziale angiogenico delle VSMC senescenti. CONCLUSIONI: Nel complesso, i nostri risultati sottolineano il ruolo multi-faccettato della senescenza delle VSMC nel promuovere la progressione e la vulnerabilità della placca aterosclerotica. Integrando analisi trascrittomiche, istologiche e funzionali, abbiamo identificato la senescenza cellulare non solo come un segno passivo dell’invecchiamento vascolare, ma come un motore attivo della destabilizzazione della placca, in particolare attraverso la disfunzione mitocondriale e il fenotipo secretorio pro-angiogenico.
THE IMPACT OF VASCULAR SMOOTH MUSCLE CELL SENESCENCE ON MITOCHONDRIA DYSFUNCTION AND ANGIOGENESIS / C. Rossi ; tutor: A. Corsini ; co-tutor: S. Bellosta ; coordinatore: G.D. Norata. - Milano. Dipartimento di Scienze Farmacologiche e Biomolecolari Rodolfo Paoletti, 2025 Dec 16. 38. ciclo, Anno Accademico 2025/2026.
THE IMPACT OF VASCULAR SMOOTH MUSCLE CELL SENESCENCE ON MITOCHONDRIA DYSFUNCTION AND ANGIOGENESIS
C. Rossi
2025
Abstract
INTRODUCTION: Atherosclerosis, the principal underlying cause of most cardiovascular diseases, progresses from early fatty streaks to advanced unstable plaques that, if ruptured, cause life-threatening events. A hallmark of plaque instability is intraplaque angiogenesis, the formation of neovessels. These neovessels are often immature and leaky, facilitating intraplaque haemorrhage, which exacerbates inflammation, promotes plaque growth, and culminates in rupture and thrombotic complications. While hypoxia is a critical driver of this process, additional pro-angiogenic mechanisms within the plaque microenvironment remain incompletely defined. Atherosclerosis is also an age-associated disease characterized by the accumulation of senescent cells, particularly vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs), which remain metabolically active but exhibit significant morphological changes, mitochondrial dysfunction and adopt a senescence-associated secretory phenotype (SASP). Despite growing recognition of senescent VSMCs’ detrimental roles in atherosclerosis, like sustained local inflammation, matrix degradation, and tissue remodelling, their potential contribution to intraplaque angiogenesis through pro-angiogenic SASP has not yet been elucidated. Moreover, while statin therapy, the most widely used drugs for the prevention and treatment of atherosclerosis, plays a crucial role in managing atherosclerosis by reducing cholesterol levels and promoting plaque stability, its impact on mitochondrial dysfunction and SASP in senescent VSMCs remains largely unexplored. AIM: This study aimed to investigate the interplay between VSMC senescence, mitochondrial dysfunction, SASP, and angiogenesis, and to evaluate the effect of simvastatin on these processes, and to test whether targeting specific SASP-related pathways (VEGF/VEGFR2 and NF-κB) may represent more effective therapeutic strategies. RESULTS: We demonstrated, using both single-cell RNA sequencing datasets and immunohistochemistry, that senescent VSMCs are significantly more abundant in human unstable carotid atherosclerotic plaques than in stable ones. Consequently, based on these premises and in order to study senescent VSMCs more thoroughly, we developed and characterized two in vitro models of VSMC senescence: replicative (or old cells) and doxorubicin-induced mimicking stress-induced premature senescence, by assessing key senescence features such as cell morphology, cell cycle arrest, SASP, and mitochondrial dysfunction. Interestingly, both senescent models displayed an accumulation of dysfunctional mitochondria characterized by reduced mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) and respiration, accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), and an altered mitochondria morphology when compared to their young cells control. Moreover, TFAM and TOM70 expression was found to be downregulated only in old cells suggesting a reduction of mitochondrial biogenesis. In addition, both models of senescent VSMCs showed a significant increase in the gene expression and protein production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, including IL-1β, IL-6, and IL-8, thereby validating the SASP profile. Next, we investigated whether simvastatin could ameliorate age-associated phenotypes in senescent VSMCs. Simvastatin (0.1 μM) improved mitochondrial respiration and reduced ROS production and the inflammatory SASP in both doxorubicin-induced and old VSMCs. Notably, when mevalonic acid, a downstream product of the HMG-CoA reductase pathway, was added, these beneficial effects of simvastatin on mitochondrial function and the SASP were no longer observed. This indicates that simvastatin's impact on mitochondrial respiration and SASP is specifically mediated through the inhibition of HMG-CoA reductase, the enzyme targeted by statins in the cholesterol biosynthesis pathway. Multiplex analysis of the inflammatory SASP in the cell culture medium of the senescent VSMCs confirmed the appropriateness of our in vitro models as doxorubicin-treated and old cells produced significantly more pro-inflammatory proteins such as IL-1β, IFN-γ and TNF-α compared to young cells, as already reported in the literature. Surprisingly, we also found that doxorubicin and old VSMCs produced significantly more pro-angiogenic molecules like Angiopoietin 1 and 2, IL-6, IL-8 and VEGFa, compared to young control cells. Interestingly, VEGFa showed a 4-fold increased concentration in doxorubicin and old cells when compared to young control cells. We next investigated the paracrine effect of the SASP derived from both our senescent VSMC models on angiogenesis, by exposing Human Umbilical Vein Endothelial Cells (HUVECs) to senescent VSMC-conditioned media. HUVECs treated with conditioned media from senescent cells showed enhanced endothelial cell proliferation, migration, and tube formation when compared the their control treated with conditioned medium from young cells. Notably, simvastatin-treated senescent VSMCs secreted significantly lower levels of pro-angiogenic factors, especially VEGFa, compared to their untreated control. Consistently, conditioned media from simvastatin-treated senescent VSMCs led to a significant reduction in HUVECs proliferation, migration, and tube formation compared to untreated media from senescent VSMCs. As VEGF stood out as the main pro-angiogenic factor in our multiplex analysis, we supplemented the conditioned media from senescent VSMCs with rivoceranib, a selective VEGFR2 inhibitor, and assessed its impact on angiogenesis. Interestingly, VEGFR2 inhibition completely abolished SASP induced HUVEC proliferation, migration, and tube formation, confirming the central role of VEGF and its receptor VEGFR2 in mediating the paracrine pro-angiogenic effects of the SASP produced by senescent VSMCs. Since NF-κB is a well-known regulator of the SASP, we pharmacologically inhibited NF-κB activity and we found a significant reduction in VEGF production in senescent VSMCs, suggesting that targeting this pathway could reduce the angiogenic potential of senescent VSMCs. CONCLUSIONS: Overall, our findings underscore the multifaceted role of VSMC senescence in promoting atherosclerotic plaque progression and vulnerability. By integrating transcriptomic, histological, and functional analyses, we identify cellular senescence not only as a passive hallmark of vascular aging but as an active driver of plaque destabilization, particularly through mitochondrial dysfunction and the pro-angiogenic secretory phenotype.| File | Dimensione | Formato | |
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phd_unimi_R13829_1.pdf
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Descrizione: Doctoral thesis : Introduzione-Materiali e Metodi
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phd_unimi_R13829_2.pdf
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Descrizione: Doctoral thesis: Risultati (5.1-5.7)
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phd_unimi_R13829_3.pdf
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Descrizione: Doctoral thesis: Risultati (5.7-5.8)- Discussione-Conclusione-Attività svolte nel dottorato
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