Us and Them : Wildmen and Devils in the Chinese Perception of Foreigners

How have the Chinese defined and perceived foreigners throughout history? What do the terms used to describe outsiders reveal about identity, alterity, and historical anxieties? Are these perceptions still relevant today? This paper explores how language and mythology have shaped the Chinese construction of the “other,” tracing the evolution of key terms and their cultural significance. The Chinese worldview has long been shaped by a sinocentric perception, encapsulated in the concept of tianxia 天下 (“All Under Heaven”). Despite this self-perception, China has continuously interacted with neighboring “barbarians” and later Western civilizations, shaping its understanding of outsiders. Ancient Chinese literature contains references to the yeren 野人 (“wildman”), a semi-human figure possibly influenced by early encounters with foreigners. These depictions framed outsiders as strange, uncivilized beings. With the arrival of Jesuit missionaries in the 16th and 17th centuries, new global knowledge challenged traditional perspectives, yet the distinction between “us” and “them” persisted. The 19th and 20th centuries—the so-called “Century of Humiliation” (1839–1949)—intensified negative perceptions of foreigners. During this period, the term guizi 鬼子 (“devil”, “demon”, or “ghost”) became widespread, reflecting hostility and alienation. By analyzing the historical evolution of these terms—from mythical wildmen to demonized adversaries—this paper examines how language has reinforced the “Us” vs “Them” dichotomy in the Chinese imagination. Through this lens, it explores the persistence and transformation of such narratives in modern China.