RELIGION AS A CULTURAL CONTEXT OF INTOLERANCE: ASSESSING THE INFLUENCE OF CULTURAL(IZED) FORMS OF RELIGION ON ATTITUDES TOWARDS IMMIGRATION ACROSS EUROPEAN COUNTRIES

In the 21st century, Europe experienced a surge in immigration, fostering both ethnic and religious diversification of European societies. In addressing the dynamic landscape of inter-group relations within this evolving context, existing research is primarily grounded in social identity theory and ethnic competition theory, where values and beliefs are perceived as resources in understanding inter-group dynamics. From such a perspective, immigrants become further separated from the national identity and Christian heritage of European societies through their generalised association with Islam, which is often instrumentalized, highlighting religion's role in inter-group relations. Despite the ongoing discussion on secularization and the decline in the significance of religion, the multifaceted nature of these processes must be recognized, as religion appears to transform from its purely religious meaning into a more cultural, institutional, and political force that continues to shape identities indirectly. This thesis proposes to assess and explain the role that religion and religiosity play in the formation of intolerance towards immigrants in European societies as they are becoming increasingly ethnically and religiously heterogeneous, while simultaneously recognising the transformation of religion and its meanings across different contexts. Comprising three studies, the thesis explores the impact of culturalized religion on intolerance, investigates religion's instrumentalization in political discourse across European countries, and analyses religious contexts in Serbia, Italy, and the UK. The first study delves into individual-level manifestations of culturalized religion, examining how cultural affiliation and religious practice influence intolerance towards immigrants across European countries. Findings highlight the nuanced nature of individual religiosity, with nominal affiliation and irregular practice among the unaffiliated exhibiting significant associations with intolerance, especially in Orthodox contexts where the cultural practice of religion stands out the most. The second study shifts focus to political elite discourse, investigating religion's instrumentalization in public discussions on immigration in Europe. Results reveal two mechanisms: general notions of religion influence intolerance for affiliates, irrespective of their practice; while specific identification of Muslims activates broader civilizational identity instigating intolerance for all, regardless of their religious affiliation and practice. The findings suggest that individual religiosity may not substantially mediate the relationship between individual intolerance towards immigrants and the instrumentalization of religion in political elite discourse, highlighting the complexity of these dynamics across various religious contexts. The third study adopts a smaller-scale comparative approach, exploring religious contexts in Serbia, Italy, and the UK. Results reveal distinct patterns in the relationship between religiosity types and intolerance towards immigrants, showcasing variations in both the definition of immigrant groups and the types of religiosity that emerge across these three distinct contexts. To answer the posited research questions, the microdata from the 9th wave of the European Social Survey was applied across all three studies. Additionally, contextual-level data supplemented the first two studies, where multilevel regression modelling was employed to explore cross-contextual differences in the relationship between intolerance and religiosity. The third study adopted a small-scale comparative design, employing linear regression modelling separately on samples from three countries: Serbia, Italy, and the UK. As its primary objective, this research emphasizes the transformation of religion, its culturalization, and its evolving role as an identity marker across European countries, surpassing its purely religious connotations. In conclusion, the thesis contributes to the discourse on the transformation and culturalization of religion, providing insights into the complexity of these processes and their context dependency. The research advocates for nuanced analyses of religiosity, political discourse, and cultural contexts to comprehend the intricate relationship between religion and intolerance in contemporary societies.